Archithey's heels 解释英文典故 典故来自古希腊神话(请问天使爱美丽里的男女主角还一起演过什么电影吗)

应该是Archilles吧~

Archilles' Heel是指致命的弱点,要害.

古希腊神话中的Archilles是海神之子,荷马史诗中的英雄,传说他的母亲曾把他浸在冥河里使其能刀枪不入.但因冥河水流湍急,母亲捏着他的脚后跟不敢松手,所以脚踵（因为脚后跟没有泡到）是最脆弱的地方,一个致命之处.因此埋下祸根.长大后,Archilles作战英勇无比,但终于给人发现了弱点,在特洛伊战争中,Archilles杀死了特洛伊王子Hector,因而惹怒了赫克托耳的保护神阿波罗,于是太阳神用箭射中了的脚后跟,送了这位勇士的命.[[[[但是我看电影Troy时、Archilles是被Pairs射的箭射中脚后跟而死的~]]]]

这就是至今流传在欧洲的谚语“Archilles' Heel”的来历.任何一个强者都会有自己的致命伤,没有不死的战神,是这个神话告诉人们的一个道理.

我像楼主推荐

漫长的婚约

剩下的 大多看后没什么感觉我也很喜欢

天使爱美丽 但除了这个电影 别的奥黛丽塔图都很显老爱美丽（-奥黛丽·塔图）时尚先锋香奈儿 Coco avant Chanel 只要在一起 Ensemble, c'est tout 达芬奇密码 The Da Vinci Code巴黎拜金女 Hors de prix 明星聊电影 Boffo! Tinseltown's Bombs and Blockbusters 俄罗斯玩偶 Poupées russes, Les漫长的婚约 A Very Long Engagement不要吻在唇上 Pas sur la bouche 失踪的水手 Marins perdus, Les除了向上爬我们别无选择 Nowhere to Go But Up安琪狂想曲 He Loves Me...He Loves Me Not西班牙旅馆 L' Auberge espagnole 肮脏甜蜜的事 Dirty Pretty Things 神婆美少女 Dieu est grand, je suis toute petite 嫁给我 Épouse-moi蝴蝶振翅 Battement d'ailes du papillon, Le Voyous voyelles放荡者 Libertin, Le瘸腿警官 Le boiteux: Baby blues 想在冰冷的海里睡Baby BluesLe boiteux: Baby blues忧愁地远去 Triste à mourir Triste a morir维纳斯美女沙龙 Vénus beauté inst巴黎飘雪 / 维纳斯的美容院Vénus beautéVénus institut混乱技术 Chaos technique 选角：肮脏至极 Casting: Archi-dégueulasse 深深的隔阂 Vieille barrière, La 丑恶的真相 Vérité est un vilain défaut, La 爱情的目标 Coeur de cible

Nino（马修·卡索维茨 Mathieu Kassovitz）路易斯-迈克尔 Louise-Michel (2008) .....Le propriétaire de la ferme 露易丝·米歇尔Louise MichelLouise Hires a Contract Killer阿维达 Avida (2006) .....Le producteur chanceux 人形动物园慕尼黑惨案 Munich (2005) .....Robert 慕尼黑 / 复仇Untitled 1972 Munich Olympics ProjectMünchenJust for Kicks (2005) .....Himself 美丽新世界II之女王任务 Asterix et Obelix : Mission Cleopatra (2002) .....Physionomiste banquet 埃及艳后的任务 / 美丽新世界2：埃及任务 / 美丽新世界续集：女王任务 / 美丽新世界II之埃及任务 / 美丽新世界II之埃及艳后的任务Astérix & Obélix: Mission CléopâtreAsterix & Obelix: Mission Cleopatra见证人 Amen. (2002) .....Riccardo Fontana EyewitnessAmen生日女郎 Birthday Girl (2001) .....Yuri 天使爱美丽 Amelie (2001) .....Nino Quincampoix 天使艾米莉 / 艾蜜莉的异想世界 / 艾蜜丽 / 阿梅丽的奇妙命运 / 天使艾美丽Fabuleux destin d'Amélie Poulain, LeAmélie心灵DJ Jakob the Liar (1999) .....Herschel 善意的谎言 / 骗子贾科伯Jakob le menteur性快感与后遗症 Plaisir (et ses petits tracas), Le (1998) .....Roland 快感，或小小的麻烦 / 莱布莱瑟 / 魔鬼情人PlaisirPleasure第五元素 The Fifth Element (1997) .....Mugger 第5元素Cinquième élément, LeThe 5th Element刺客 Assassin (s) (1997) .....Max 接班人 / 血杀狂徒Assassin浪得过火 Mon homme (1996) .....1st Client: Clement (uncredited) 欲望街情人 / 我的男人My ManÉn pasim, Az上苍的讯息 Des nouvelles du bon Dieu (1996) Deus só Atende aos DomingosNachrichten vom Lieben Gott自制英雄 Un héros très discret (1996) .....Albert Dehousse 无名英雄 / 堕落的男人A Self-Made HeroUm Herói Muito Discreto怒火青春 Haine, La (1995) .....Young skinhead 仇恨 / 恨HateLa Haine童梦失魂夜 La Cite des enfants perdus (1995) .....Man on the street (uncredited) 丢孩子的城市 / 惊异狂想曲 / 迷儿城The City of Lost ChildrenCité des enfants perdus, La看男人们倒下 Regarde les homes tomber (1994) .....Johnny 看男人们堕落 / 见人倒下 / 看着那些人跌倒Regarde les hommes tomberSee How They Fall牛奶巧克力 Métisse (1993) Café au laitBlended接触与死亡 Touch and Die (1991) .....Piaz Bei Berührung LebensgefahrChi tocca muore跳蚤费罗 Fierrot le pou (1990) 明年吧，如果一切都好的话 Année prochaine... si tout va bien, L' (1981) .....Le petit garçon Heirate mich nicht, ChérieNext Year If All Goes Well

见证人 阿维达 第五元素 时尚先锋香奈儿 疯狗强尼 达*芬奇密码 只要在一起 漫长的婚约 肮脏甜蜜的事 蝴蝶振翅 都不错Nino 由马修·卡索维茨 Mathieu Kassovitz饰演，爱美丽由奥黛丽·塔图 Audrey Tautou 饰演，两人在《天使》之后没有合作过。马修·卡索维茨更多的是以他的导演天分而著称，即使演电影也多是些小角色，戏份少，所以不值得专去找他参演的电影看，他导演的电影也不被咱们中国观众熟知，毕竟法国电影没有hollywood流行。爱美丽由奥黛丽·塔图 也不是很有名的演员，除了《天使》，她还出演过的有《巴黎拜金女》，《达芬奇密码 I》，以及2009年4月在法国上映的《时尚先锋香奈儿》。这些都是稍有名气的电影，不过她在《达芬奇》里的表现并没有给我留下多少印象。

一：解释1：太监：通常指经人工手术后丧失了生殖能力的宫廷高级官员，但后来演变成为一种官衔，不一定跟性器官的情况有关。解释2：太监：当今网络用语，代指网络书籍很长时间不更新，像太监生不了孩子似的。例句：大大的书似乎要太监（TJ）了，更新怎么这么慢呀～～唐代设内侍省，其长官为监及少监。《辽史·百官志》载，辽代南面官诸“监”职名中，有“太监”之称，但在具体称呼上，仅称监，如太府监。元代的太府和各监，多有“太监”一官（如仪文监、典牧监、典室监、太府监等均设太监）。明代诸监不设此官，但在宦官所领的二十四衙门，各专设掌印太监等，在宫廷内专门侍奉皇帝及其家族。明中叶以后，太监的权力扩大，拥有出使、监军、镇守、侦察臣民等大权。清代相沿，太监成为宦官的专称，设总管太监等为首领，隶属于内务府。宦官，俗称太监或“老公”。文书上的称谓很多，例如有阉人、阉宦、宦者、中官、内官、内臣、内侍、太监、内监等等。这些男子生殖器官被阉割后失去性功能而成为不男不女的中性人，这批人是历代王朝在宫廷内侍奉皇帝及其家属的奴仆。 据记载，我国先秦和西汉时期的宦官并非全是阉人；自东汉开始，才全部用阉人。这是由于在皇宫内廷，上自皇太后、太妃，本朝后、妃以及宫女等，女眷较多，如果允许男侍出入，难免会发生秽乱宫帷的事。所以绝不允许有其他成年男性在宫内当差。 我国历代宦官的人数以明朝为最，号称l0万。清朝改革了明代臃肿的太监机构，并制定了一套管理制度即宫规宫法，将明崇祯末年的9万多太监，削减为9000人。清朝太监的等级极其严格，清朝宫廷内设有管理太监的机构称“敬事房”，又谓“宫殿监办事处”。规定在督领侍下面，有大总管、副总管、带班首领、御前太监、殿上太监、一般太监和下层打扫处小太监之分。发展至清代末期，太监等级更加复杂。在宫殿监中，就有总管、首领、掌案、回事和小太监之分；在各处所中又有首领、大师父、师父、带班、陈人、徒弟之别等等。如此层层节制，一级管一级.一级压一级，统治得非常严密。 封建帝王是世袭的，皇帝唯恐他人篡夺自己的皇位。一般情况下，皇帝猜忌朝廷的文武外官，总防着他们有外心：但却认为朝夕侍候在自己身边百依百顺、出身低下而又没有后代的内官员可靠。而宦官则往往利用在宫廷中的这种特殊地位，攫取极大的权力，甚至操纵帝上。这些人数量不多，但奴性十足，狡黠阴险、残忍狠毒。一旦成为皇帝的心腹，更是谗谄佞邪，毫无顾忌。他们结成死党，挟持皇帝，假传圣旨，卖官鬻爵，贪赃枉法，陷害忠良，甚至可以废立以至杀死皇帝。在我国封建社会历史上，宦官专权曾演出了一幕幕祸国殃民的惨剧，其中以东汉、唐、明三代为最。秦朝的赵高，东汉的侯览、张让，唐代的高力士、仇士良、田令孜，明朝的王振、汪直、刘瑾、魏忠贤，以及清代末年的李莲英，都是历史上臭名昭著的宦官。 清代末年，安徽省的庐江、无为、和县、含山、巢湖,现在北京郊区的昌平、平谷，还有山东省的乐陵，都是出太监的地方。太监都是劳苦人出身，被生活所迫，指望把孩子送进宫里，有条活路，将来也得些好处。当时有的只有10岁左右就阉割净了身，李莲英就是8岁净身，9岁进宫的。民国初年。一个13岁的小太监马德清就被送进了博仪的逊清皇室小朝廷当差。 说到净身，清光绪年间，北京有专门干这种营生的，南长街会计司胡同的“毕五”和地安门内方砖胡同的“小刀刘”，就是专干这一行当的。有的说这两家的家主都是清朝的七品官，还有的说小刀刘是六品顶戴。他们每年分4次，即每个季度给总管内务府送净好身的孩子，这是他们的职业。净身的“手续”则全由他们两家包办了。在清初，对净身还有个规定，不能私自行事，按刑律规定，违者问斩。到了晚清就不那么严格了，也有个别人是父亲亲自给儿子净身的，上面提到的马德清就是在他9岁那年，被他父亲亲自切除了生殖器。解放后，据马德清老先生回忆，净身是他一辈子最伤心的事，是一场难忘的酷刑。 太监入宫后，其中有少数人靠着奉承和钻营的手段，慢慢爬上有权有势的地位，慈溜太后宠信的李莲英和小德张，便是其中突出的两个。一代权监李莲英，曾与袁世凯互相勾结，藉以大发横财，仅一次就接受袁的贿赂20万两白银。据说李莲英临死时，不仅有大量的地产，还有无数的玉器珠宝，4个继子分得了大量银钱财物，就连2个继女，也每人各得白银l7万两。当时李莲英得罪了不少人，慈禧死后，他于宣统元年(1909年)正月底即向隆裕太后告老出宫，悄悄地离开了紫禁城，然而他终于在宣统三年正月归天了，有说是得痢疾死的，有说是被人害死的，“文化大革命”中，他葬在海甸区思济庄的坟墓被人挖开，竞只有人头，无身子，弄得人首异地，被人害死的可能性更大，结局归宿也够惨的！出时的小德张效法李莲英，一面讨好慈禧，同时又和光绪皇后后来的隆裕太后沆瀣一气，狼狈为奸，终于爬上了大总管的地位。他的财产也无法计数，在河北省静海县以及京畿南苑都有他的地产，天津英租界里他曾置楼房12座，北京永康胡同有他宏伟的大宅第，此外还有当铺、绸缎店等多处。 但是，紫禁城内不少下层小太监，终日辛苦劳动，到暮年离开皇宫，也没见过皇帝一面；太监受污辱被损害乃至折磨而死的事，亦时有发生。例如晚清宫廷中被慈禧派往光绪身边的太监寇连材，因他深明大义，斗胆违例向慈禧上奏折凡10条，劝慈僖归政，并言不宜去忠直人而专用阿谀者。最后被慈禧以内监有言事者斩，按清朝成例，送交刑部命处斩勿论。据说寇连材问斩时镇定自若，死而无憾。 紫禁城内责打太监的事，屡屡发生，他们只要稍有“不规”或偶有“犯错”，慈禧即下令动辄责打和处罚。刑罚之残酷，无以复加，实在骇人听闻，有的还要株连他人。光绪末年，慈禧曾用“气毙”之刑，竞把珍纪宫中30来个太监活活处死，造成迫害太监的一大惨案。所谓“气毙”，是用七层白棉纸沾水后，将受刑人的口鼻耳封闭，再用杖刑责打而死。 另外，那些下层小太监一旦失掉服役能力之后，都要被逐出紫禁城。不少太监晚年以寺庙栖身。据调查，在北京城郊，共有明清时期的太监寺庙约20多座。辛亥革命、皇朝覆灭后，尤其是在逊清小朝廷被逐出紫禁城后，太监这一不合理的制度，终于随之彻底废除了。太监，在中国古代典籍中的名称很多，诸如中宦、宦官、宦者、内侍、内宦、阉人、中涓、内竖、中贵人等。 在中国历史上，在封建社会消亡之前，没有宦官的时代不多。太监，作为帝王与后妃的奴仆，支撑着皇家宫殿那广厦高台的金碧辉煌，成就了皇宫内统治者舒适优裕的生活条件。 常人想成为太监必先去势，即割掉生殖器。这称为“净身”，使他们成为“六根不全”的人。 太监面不生明须，喉头无突，声变变细，说话女声女气，举止动作似女非男，成了“中性”人。 其实，太监并不是中国的特产。在古代埃及、希腊、罗马、土耳其、朝鲜，乃至整个亚洲都有太监。只是，中国的太监制度是最根深蒂固的。 在漫长的中国封建社会历史中，太监不仅涉足王公贵族、高官显爵的生活中，而且还涉足于复杂的政治斗争中。在辛亥革命以前的中国，历朝的衰亡大都与太监作乱有关，汉、唐、明三朝的覆灭与太监的专横暴虐有直接关系。 太监，这个专制制度下的牺牲者，或沉于地狱，或平步青云，在两千年的中国历史大舞台上，演出了一幕幕惊心动魄的活剧。

紫禁城。游人如织，一双双好奇的眼睛，一张张天真的容颜，一声声惊异的叹息。中外游客争睹琼楼玉宇、雕栏玉砌。呼风唤雨的几条巨龙似乎要从九龙壁上飞下来，现代叶公们不停地拍照。

这是一个晴朗的夏日，北中国惯有的灿烂的阳光，熙熙攘攘中，我却一口口地倒吸凉气，我不知道自己为什么这么冷――无论在巍峨雄伟的三大殿外，还是在曲径通幽的御花园里，我不停地打着寒战。

九千九百九十九间半的房间，没有一间亮丽堂皇，光线被冷漠地隔在房间外，只有残余的几束从小小的雕花的窗眼偷渡进去。在这几束光中，有无数的灰尘在飞舞，如昔日的霓裳舞曲。

没有参观者会注意这个小小的、破落的房间。我却注意到了。它位于西华门附近，官方的名字叫“净身房”，民间的名字叫“场子”。

谁也不知道，皇朝文明的“精髓”就藏在这间房子里。

关于太监的起源，中国早在殷商就有“寺人”，据专家考证，甲骨文中已有相关的记载，历史自然比西方要悠久。

唐甄在《潜书》中这样描绘太监：“望之不似人身，相之不似人面，听之不似人声，察之不近人情。”为什么这样说呢？唐甄解释道：他们长得臃肿，弯曲，好似长了瘿结，鼻子里呼呼作响，如同牛和猪一样，因此不像人的身体；他们长着男人的颊骨却不是男人，没有胡须却不是女人，虽然面如美玉却没有一点生气，因此不像人的面容；他们的声音好像儿童一样稚细却不清脆，好像女人一样尖细却不柔媚，你说它嘶哑但又能成声，你说它如猩叫但又能成人语，因此不像人的声音；他们可以很爱人，也能下毒手害人，当他们怜悯你时流涕而语，而当他们憎恶你时，则斩杀如草，因此不像人的感情。

生理的变态必然导致心理的变态，鲁迅在《坟?寡妇主义》中说：“中国历代的宦官，那冷酷险狠，都超出常人许多倍。”在那被贾元春称为“见不得天日”的地方，太监们肆意发泄着他们变态的性欲、权力欲、贪欲。仅以贪污而论，据明人赵士锦在《甲申记事》中载，明末李自成进京前，偌大一个明帝国的国库存银竟不到四千两！而魏忠贤被抄时，居然抄出白银千万两，珍宝无算，以致崇祯多次痛心疾首地怒斥太监们：“将我祖宗积蓄贮库传国异宝金银等，明比盗窃一空。”

崇祯的“痛心疾首”既让人同情，又不让人同情。让人同情，是因为他贵为天子，却拿太监没办法；不让人同情，是因为他自己就是太监头子，他是棵大树，太监是在树上筑巢的鸟，倘若同情皇帝，谁来同情太监呢？ 然而，君主们依然坚持太监制。既然自诩为“天子”，就得龟缩在宫廷里，跟一般百姓保持距离――让百姓知道皇上也是吃喝拉撒睡的凡人，那还了得！迷宫一样的宫廷内便需要“绝对安全”的奴仆，怕戴绿帽子的皇帝便与不能人事的太监“焦不离孟，孟不离焦”，共同成为庞大的帝国大厦中的两块最重要的基石。 在有的皇帝那里，太监理论发展到了登峰造极的地步。公元十世纪，正逢五代十国乱哄哄，南方有一个小朝廷史称南汉。那是唐末封州刺史刘岩割据一方，自称皇帝，建都广州，称兴王府。他有一套神奇的治国理论，认为一般人都有妻儿老小，既有妻儿老小，便有私心，便不能无私奉献自己于皇上，而太监“无鸟一身轻”，故只有太监最无私，没有后顾之忧，必死命效力。传位到他的孙子南汉王刘伥，更下了一纸文件，曰：凡是朝廷任用的人，不管他是进士还是状元出身，一律要阉割，达到“赤条条来去无牵挂”的化境之态，方能当官。刘氏父子的思维方式与船山先生截然相反，于是中国历史上蔚为壮观的太监王朝产生了。王船山反复渲染太监的可怜可悲，这却是他的书生之见。羡慕太监的人比羡慕他这位大学问家的多着呢。 然而，太监得势的时代，民间往往相应掀起“自宫潮”，许多小康之家的儿子也忍痛自宫，以图仕进，这确实是一条终南捷径：读书须受十年寒窗苦，自宫却是一时痛终身富贵。据《?山堂别集?中官考十》记载：“南海户净身男九百七十余人复乞收入。”一个小村子，居然有如此之多的童男自宫。整个国家呢？天启三年，征募宦官缺额3000人，结果应征者多达2万人。政府竟想不到会有如此多人，一时无措，不得不增加1500人，剩下的人，安置在京郊南苑的收容所。即使如此，收容所也容纳不下这么多人，许多人不得不沦为乞丐和偷盗者。下有自宫之风，上有体制的膨胀，有明一朝，太监机构的编制不断扩大，太监们组成了“大朝廷中的小朝廷”。 人们赞美太和殿的精美绝伦，其实，太和殿与净身房相比，只是小巫见大巫，一座纸扎的房子而已。在皇城中，净身房的地位远远比太和殿重要。对于万历这样的皇帝来说，在位数十年，在太和殿举行的朝会不过数次而已，有没有太和殿并不重要，没有净身房就了不得了――皇帝没有太监的服侍，就连一天的吃喝拉撒睡都没办法维持。所以，净身房才是紫禁城的精髓所在。紫禁城是建立在净身房之上的，正如帝王制是建立在太监制基础上的。 阉割是一种古典之极。公元前一百多年的司马迁只不过帮李陵说了几句话，就被皇帝将卵蛋刨了去了，英明神武的“皇上”的价值观可能跟法国思想家狄德罗所估计的相同。狄德罗在评价法国波旁王朝时说：“在宫廷，‘狂欢的工具’从来与政治媲美。”那么犯了政治错误的司马迁一生岂非只好以失去“狂欢的工具”，悲苦耻辱而告终？不然，他完成了《史记》。 中国不愧为文明古国，汉朝人将处宫刑的地方称为“蚕室。”一个诗意十足的名字，一个丑陋的蚕变作美丽的蝴蝶的地方。阉割是文化的死敌，也是文化的一部分，阉割侵蚀着文化、吞咽着文化、改造着文化，当阉割内化为文化的本质的时候，文化便消除了被阉割的焦虑，而在特别的快感之中陶醉。正如黄永玉先生所说：“一部文化史几乎就是无数身体的局部或全部被刨去的行为史，是由阉割与被阉割两种不同性质的快感写成的。” 从被阉到自宫只有一步之遥，从身体的残疾到心灵的残疾也只有一步之遥。当“去势”成为奴隶们的义务时，那么口口声声说“连受之于父母的毛发也不应该损伤”的圣人们只好装作没看见。装在瓶子里的太监们的“命根子”是保证皇帝的妻妾们的贞操的“证件”；而大大小小的圣人们对“命根子”的沉默，则是保证皇帝们的权力畅通无阻的“证件”。1首先，揭穿一个常见的谎言，秦朝赵高不是宦官，参见网上文章的详细考证。2宦官宦官，也称太监、公公、寺人、阉人、内侍、中官、中涓、内竖、中贵人，是指中国古代皇宫中替皇族服务并阉割掉外生殖器的男性。宦官是负责宫廷杂事的奴仆，不得参与国家政务，但因与皇室朝夕相处，遂能博取信赖或有可乘之机，故在一些朝代中存在著宦官掌握国家政务大权的情况。早期宦官不一定都是阉人，在东汉之后才完全使用阉人做宦官。3用阉割过的男人作为宫廷内侍并非中国独有产物。埃及、波斯、印度等古文明都曾经有相同的做法。圣经新约中亦有向来自非洲埃塞俄比亚的太监传福音的记述。英文中太监(eunuch)一字即由希腊文“守护床的人”转变而成，可见宦官在中外本来都是为了保护后宫贞节、皇族血统而设。4中国的宦官在中国，商朝时的甲骨文中曾出现“凸刀”字，其义与阉字相通，但未见有将他们作宫庭内侍的记述。西周时开始有使用阉人的记载，《周礼》内有“宫者使守内，以其人道绝也”。当时的阉人被用来作“寺人”、“内竖”、“阍人”等职，但是人数不多且地位低下，只是负责杂役、传令等工作，是家臣的一种。随著专政王权的发展，到了战国、秦朝时，受宫刑的人大量增加，使用阉人的机构亦增多，阉人当政亦开始出现。5到了汉朝，侍候皇帝的人统一被叫作“宦者”或“宦官”。据说此名是出自拱卫在天帝星旁一个叫“宦者”的星座。至东汉时，规定宦官全部要用阉人，大规模宦官当政亦在当时首次出现，东汉末年成为宦官与外戚之间彼此厮杀的舞台，称为“第一次宦官时代”。之后在唐代安史之乱后再次出现大规模宦官当权，称为“第二次宦官时代”。至于“太监”一名称，最早出现于辽，本来是政府高级职位的名称，并不一定由宦官任。至明朝时，宫廷内设十二监二十四衙门，提领者被称为掌印太监，俱由宦官出任。于是“太监”变成了高级宦官的称谓，后来成了对宦官的统称。宦官在明代发展至顶峰，明初交趾监军马骐逼使交趾脱离中国，明末时曾经有过宦官数万名，遍布政府各部门，以太监充任的特务分布全国，称为“第三次宦官时代”。宦官时代的结束，一定是王朝的覆亡。到清朝时，宦官统统称为太监。清朝对太监控制得十分严格，除了清末有一两个受宠的太监外，宦官弄权的情况没有出现。6宦官的来源阉人最初的来源是受过宫刑的犯人。到了宦官有机会掌权，开始亦有人为了作宦官而接受阉割。隋朝以后，宫刑被废止作为正式的刑罚，宦官应以自愿被阉割者居多。到了明朝，被阉作宦官者，除了部份是来自南方被掳的外族小孩(如郑和）；多是自愿阉割的人。明朝太监的阉割本来应该是由宫廷负责，民间自行阉割是被禁止的；但这项禁令从未被认真执行。明代中叶，民间曾经出现大批自阉后入不了宫，作不了太监的人，被称为“无名白内官”。明朝，太监如蚁阵，最多时达十万之众。北京邻边的青县、静海、河间、沧州、任丘、南皮、枣强等县，许多人争相净身入宫。《戴斗夜谈》载“京畿民间生子，每私自阉割”，《日下旧闻考》引《白头闲话》所记“都人生子，往往阉割，觊为中宫（太监），有非分之福”。7中国著名的宦官竖刁：春秋时齐国宦官。他为了表示对齐桓公的忠心，自行阉割，而齐桓公也因为这件事而不听管仲遗言，亲信易牙、竖刁。桓公病危时竖刁作乱，桓公衣袖蒙脸，气绝而死。之后桓公五位公子为继位而明争暗斗，无人替桓公收尸。 嫪毐：战国时期秦国的假宦官。 郑季产：平窦宪之乱。 蔡伦：（约63年—121年），东汉时宦官，相传是纸的发明人。 张让：东汉十常侍之首。 黄皓：三国时蜀汉宦官，三国演义中刘禅因听信他而荒废政事。 高力士：唐玄宗宠臣，传说李白醉酒后要“力士脱靴”。 李辅国：唐肃宗当权的宦官，第一位宦官宰相。 鱼朝恩：唐朝时以监军出身的宦官。 仇士良：唐朝专权宦官，神策军中尉，在甘露之变中果断劫持唐文宗，致使李训、郑注等为首的朝臣集团图谋剿灭宦官干政势力的努力失败，从此唐朝中央政府彻底被宦官集团控制。 童贯：北宋宦官，与权相蔡京勾结，在小说《水浒传》亦有描述。 郑和：（1371年-1435年）明朝成祖三宝太监，航海探险家。 王振：明朝第一名当权宦官，引致土木之变，明英宗被俘。 刘瑾：明朝时当权宦官，后被凌迟处死。 冯保：明朝权宦之一。 魏忠贤：明朝时宦官，以败坏朝政著名。 安德海：清朝慈禧的最爱。后来出京办货，到山东被巡抚丁宝桢以祖训逮捕处斩。 李莲英：继安德海后的另一位当权太监。 小德张：中国最后一位掌权太监。 8其他国家著名的宦官穆尼斯·穆赞法尔，阿拉伯帝国著名宦官，禁卫军首领 en:Farinelli，意大利著名阉伶 9A eunuch is a castrated man; the term usually refers to those castrated in order to perform a specific social function, as was common in many societies of the past. The earliest records for intentional castration to produce eunuchs are from the Sumerian cities of Lagash in the 21st century BC.[citation needed] Over the millennia since, they have performed a wide variety of functions in many different cultures such as courtiers or equivalent domestics, treble singers, religious specialists, government officials, military commanders, and guardians of women or harem servants. In some societies, the notion of eunuch has been expanded to include men who are impotent with women or are simply celibate.The English word eunuch is from the Greek eune ("bed") and ekhein ("to keep"), effectively "bed keeper." Servants or slaves were usually castrated in order to make them safer servants of a royal court where physical access to the ruler could wield great influence – seemingly lowly domestic functions such as making the ruler's bed, bathing him, cutting his hair, carrying him in his litter or even relaying messages, giving him "the ruler's ear" could impart de facto power on the formally humble but trusted servant, as reflected in the humble origins and etymology of many high offices (e.g. chancellor started out as a servant guarding the entrance to an official's study). Eunuchs supposedly did not generally have loyalties to the military, the aristocracy, or to a family of their own (having neither offspring nor in-laws, at the very least), and were thus seen as more trustworthy and less interested in establishing a private 'dynasty'. Because their condition usually lowered their social status, they could also be easily replaced or killed without repercussion. In cultures that had both harems and eunuchs, eunuchs were sometimes used as harem servants (compare the female odalisque) or seraglio guards.10Ancient Middle EastEunuchs were familiar figures in the Assyrian Empire (ca. 850 till 622 B.C.), in the court of the Achaemenid emperors of Persia and the Egyptian Pharaohs (down to the Lagid dynasty known as Ptolemies, ending with Cleopatra). In 1796, Agha Mohammad Khan Ghajar was crowned as Shah of Iran and established the Qajar dynasty, the only eunuch to be crowned Shah.11ChinaIn ancient China castration was both a traditional punishment (until the Sui Dynasty) and a means of gaining employment in the Imperial service. At the end of the Ming Dynasty there were 70,000 eunuchs (宦官 huàn'guān, or 太监 tàijiān) in the Imperial palace. The value of such employment—certain eunuchs gained immense power that may have superseded that of the prime ministers—was such that self-castration had to be made illegal. The number of eunuchs in Imperial employ had fallen to 470 in 1912, when their employment ceased. The justification of the employment of eunuchs as high-ranking civil servants was that, since they were incapable of having children, they would not be tempted to seize power and start a dynasty. Concurrently, a similar system existed in Vietnam.The tension between depraved eunuchs in the service of the emperor and virtuous Confucian officials resisting their tyranny is a familiar theme in Chinese history. In his History of Government, Samuel Finer points out that reality was not always that clear-cut. There were instances of very capable eunuchs, who were valuable advisors to their emperor, and the resistance of the "virtuous" officials often was procrastination on the part of a privileged class which blindly resisted any change, whether it be for the good or the bad of the empire.12Greco-Roman practiceThe practice was also well established in Europe among the Greeks and Romans, although more rarely as court functionaries than in Asia. The third sex Galli of Cybele were considered by some to be eunuchs. In late Rome, emperors such as Constantine were surrounded by eunuchs for such functions as bathing, hair cutting, dressing, and bureaucratic functions, in effect acting as a shield between the emperor and his administrators from physical contact. Eunuchs were believed loyal and dispensable.At the Byzantine imperial court, there were a great number of eunuchs employed in domestic and administrative functions, actually organized as a separate hierarchy, following a parallel career of their own. Archieunuchs—each in charge of a group of eunuchs—were among the principal officers in Constantinople, under the emperors.It was only after the Muslim Arabs conquered parts of the Roman Empire that they acquired eunuchs from the Romans, and not knowing what else to do with them, made them into harem guards. For the Eunuchs in the Ottoman Great Sultan's harem and wider palace service, see the (Topkapi) Seraglio.13The hijra of IndiaThe Ancient Indian Kama Sutra refers to people of a "third sex" (trtyaprakrti), who can be dressed either in men's or in women's clothes and perform fellatio on men. The term has been translated as "eunuchs" (as in Sir Richard Burton's translation of the book), but these persons have also been considered to be the equivalent of the modern hijra of India.Hijra, a Hindi term traditionally translated into English as "eunuch", actually refers to what modern Westerners would call male-to-female transgender people and effeminate homosexuals (although some of them reportedly identify as belonging to a third sex). Some of them undergo ritual castration, but the majority do not. They usually dress in saris (traditional Indian garb worn by women) and wear heavy make-up. They typically live in the margins of society, face discrimination

and earn their living in various ways, e.g., by coming uninvited at weddings, births, new shop openings and other major family events and singing until they are paid or given gifts to go away. The ceremony is supposed to bring good luck and fertility, while the curse of an unappeased hijra is feared by many. Other sources of income for the hijra are begging and prostitution. The begging is accompanied by singing and dancing and the hijras usually get the money easily. Some Indian provincial officials have used the assistance of hijras to collect taxes in the same fashion; they knock on the doors of shopkeepers, while dancing and singing, and embarrass them into paying. Recently, hijras have started to found organizations to improve their social condition and fight discrimination. There has even been a wave of hijra entering politics and being elected to high political positions.14Historically significant eunuchsIn chronological order.Aspamistres or Mithridates (5th century BC) Bodyguard of Xerxes I of Persia, and (with Artabanus) his murderer. Artoxares: A of Artaxerxes I and Darius II of Persia. Bagoas (4th century BC) Prime minister of king Artaxerxes III of Persia, and his murderer. (Bagoas is an old Persian/Farsai word meaning Eunuch.) Bagoas (4th century BC) A favorite of Alexander the Great. Influential in changing Alexander's attitude toward Persians and therefore in the king's policy decision to try to integrate the conquered peoples fully into his Empire as loyal subjects. He thereby paved the way for the relative success of Alexander's Seleucid successors and greatly enhanced the penetration of Greek culture to the East.宦官是太监中当官的阉人作为中国封建社会的特殊产物，早已为人们所熟悉，但也常常把它与宦官、太监混为一谈，如《辞源》把“宦者”解释为太监、阉人，把“宦官”则释作宫内侍奉官，这是一种曲解。其实，阉人、宦官和太监虽说都是供内宫驱使、受阉割的男人，但三者之间还是有着严格区别的。东汉之前的宦官是专指供侍于内宫之人，其中既有阉人，也有士人。东汉时，由于“宦官悉用阉人，不复杂调它士《后汉书·宦者列传》，”这时阉人才与宦官等同起来。(辞源}中把“太监”解释为“在宫内侍奉皇帝及其家族的官”，这一点不错。但紧随其后又有“自此，太监遂成为宦官的专称”一句，这里显然把太监又同宦官认作是一回事。由此便形成了这样一个认识:阉人=宦官=太监。但从(明史·郑和传):“郑和……初事燕王于藩邸，从起兵有功，累握太监”的记载看，太监显然与宦官、阉人不是一个概念。郑和12岁受阉割人侍燕王朱棣，因“靖难”有功，成祖时被提拔为太监，“太监”显然是超于阉人之上的一类。如果太监即是阉人、宦官的话，又何需“累握”呢?可见，从以上的分析中不难得出这样的结论:阉人、宦官在东汉之前是完全不同的两个概念，东汉时起，二者才合流。太监则是地位高于一般宦官的阉人，或者说是阉人首领，三者不应混为一谈。在人们的印象里，宦官与太监是一码事，其实两者是有区别的。据文学考证得知:其一，最早的宦官并非都是阉人;其二，宦官与大监在封建社会的概念是有别的。古代宦官足对在皇宫里为皇帝及其至亲服务的官员的总称。东汉以前，充当宦官的并不都是阉刻之人。“悉用阉人”是在东汉之后。太监一词的出现最早在辽代，是辽代政权机构中的官员称谓之一。辽代的太府监、少府监、秘书监等设有太监‘元代因袭辽制.所设各监也都有大监。元代太监尧诸监中的三级官吏，并非尽是刑余之人。到了明代，大监和宦官有了较固定的关系。充当大监者必是宦官，但宦官并不都是大监。太监是宦官的上司，是具有一定品级、体裸的高级宦官。太监成为宦官的专称是从清代开始的。因为清代将侍奉皇帝和皇族的宦官都冠以大监之称，故此，宦官与太监便混为一谈了。——宏申《宦官与太监有别》中国古代被阉割后失去性能力而专供皇帝、君主及其家族役使的官员。又称寺人、阉人、阉官、宦者、中官、内官、内臣、内侍、内监等。唐高宗时，改殿中省为中御府，以宦官充任太监，少监。后宦官亦通称为太监。太监是太监，太监可以是宦官，但是宦官不一定是太监。宦官是太监中当官的阉人作为中国封建社会的特殊产物，早已为人们所熟悉，但也常常把它与宦官、太监混为一谈，如《辞源》把“宦者”解释为太监、阉人，把“宦官”则释作宫内侍奉官，这是一种曲解。其实，阉人、宦官和太监虽说都是供内宫驱使、受阉割的男人，但三者之间还是有着严格区别的。东汉之前的宦官是专指供侍于内宫之人，其中既有阉人，也有士人。东汉时，由于“宦官悉用阉人，不复杂调它士《后汉书·宦者列传》，”这时阉人才与宦官等同起来。(辞源}中把“太监”解释为“在宫内侍奉皇帝及其家族的官”，这一点不错。但紧随其后又有“自此，太监遂成为宦官的专称”一句，这里显然把太监又同宦官认作是一回事。由此便形成了这样一个认识:阉人=宦官=太监。但从(明史·郑和传):“郑和……初事燕王于藩邸，从起兵有功，累握太监”的记载看，太监显然与宦官、阉人不是一个概念。郑和12岁受阉割人侍燕王朱棣，因“靖难”有功，成祖时被提拔为太监，“太监”显然是超于阉人之上的一类。如果太监即是阉人、宦官的话，又何需“累握”呢?可见，从以上的分析中不难得出这样的结论:阉人、宦官在东汉之前是完全不同的两个概念，东汉时起，二者才合流。太监则是地位高于一般宦官的阉人，或者说是阉人首领，三者不应混为一谈。在人们的印象里，宦官与太监是一码事，其实两者是有区别的。据文学考证得知:其一，最早的宦官并非都是阉人;其二，宦官与大监在封建社会的概念是有别的。古代宦官足对在皇宫里为皇帝及其至亲服务的官员的总称。东汉以前，充当宦官的并不都是阉刻之人。“悉用阉人”是在东汉之后。太监一词的出现最早在辽代，是辽代政权机构中的官员称谓之一。辽代的太府监、少府监、秘书监等设有太监‘元代因袭辽制.所设各监也都有大监。元代太监尧诸监中的三级官吏，并非尽是刑余之人。到了明代，大监和宦官有了较固定的关系。充当大监者必是宦官，但宦官并不都是大监。太监是宦官的上司，是具有一定品级、体裸的高级宦官。太监成为宦官的专称是从清代开始的。因为清代将侍奉皇帝和皇族的宦官都冠以大监之称，故此，宦官与太监便混为一谈了。——宏申《宦官与太监有别》

刚为一位朋友翻译了关于Junan Gris的论文介绍，以下内容是网上资料供参考。Cubism was a 20th century avant-garde art movement, pioneered by Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque, that revolutionized European painting and sculpture, and inspired related movements in music and literature. The first branch of cubism, known as "Analytic Cubism", was both radical and influential as a short but highly significant art movement between 1907 and 1911 in France. In its second phase, Synthetic Cubism, (using synthetic materials in the art) the movement spread and remained vital until around 1919, when the Surrealist movement gained popularity.English art historian Douglas Cooper describes three phases of Cubism in his seminal book "The Cubist Epoch". According to Cooper there was "Early Cubism", (from 1906 to 1908) when the movement was initially developed in the studios of Picasso and Braque; the second phase being called "High Cubism", (from 1909 to 1914) during which time Juan Gris emerged as an important exponent; and finally Cooper referred to "Late Cubism" (from 1914 to 1921) as the last phase of Cubism as a radical avant-garde movement.[1]In cubist artworks, objects are broken up, analyzed, and re-assembled in an abstracted form—instead of depicting objects from one viewpoint, the artist depicts the subject from a multitude of viewpoints to represent the subject in a greater context. Often the surfaces intersect at seemingly random angles, removing a coherent sense of depth. The background and object planes interpenetrate one another to create the shallow ambiguous space, one of cubism's distinct characteristics.During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the European cultural elite were discovering African, Micronesian and Native American art for the first time. Artists such as Paul Gauguin, Henri Matisse, and Pablo Picasso were intrigued and inspired by the stark power and simplicity of styles of those foreign cultures. Around 1906, Picasso met Matisse through Gertrude Stein, at a time when both artists had recently acquired an interest in primitivism, Iberian sculpture, African art and African tribal masks. They became friendly rivals and competed with each other throughout their careers, perhaps leading to Picasso entering a new period in his work by 1907, marked by the influence of Greek, Iberian and African art. Picasso's paintings of 1907 have been characterized as Protocubism, as notably seen in Les Demoiselles d'Avignon, the antecedent of Cubism.Some believe that the roots of cubism are to be found in the two distinct tendencies of Paul Cézanne's later work: firstly to break the painted surface into small multifaceted areas of paint, thereby emphasizing the plural viewpoint given by binocular vision, and secondly his interest in the simplification of natural forms into cylinders, spheres, and cones.However, the cubists explored this concept further than Cézanne; they represented all the surfaces of depicted objects in a single picture plane, as if the objects had had all their faces visible at the same time. This new kind of depiction revolutionized the way in which objects could be visualized in painting and art.The invention of Cubism was a joint effort between Picasso and Braque, then residents of Montmartre, Paris. These artists were the movement's main innovators. A later active participant was the Spaniard Juan Gris. After meeting in 1907 Braque and Picasso in particular began working on the development of Cubism. Picasso was initially the force and influence that persuaded Braque by 1908 to move away from Fauvism. The two artists began working closely together in late 1908–early 1909 until the outbreak of World War I in 191四是 The movement spread quickly throughout Paris and Europe.French art critic Louis Vauxcelles first used the term "cubism", or "bizarre cubiques", in 1908 after seeing a picture by Braque. He described it as "full of little cubes", after which the term quickly gained wide use although the two creators did not initially adopt it. Art historian Ernst Gombrich described cubism as "the most radical attempt to stamp out ambiguity and to enforce one reading of the picture - that of a man-made construction, a coloured canvas."[2] Juan Gris, Portrait of Picasso, 1912, oil on canvasCubism was taken up by many artists in Montparnasse and promoted by art dealer Daniel-Henry Kahnweiler, becoming popular so quickly that by 1911 critics were referring to a "cubist school" of artists. However, many of the artists who thought of themselves as cubists went in directions quite different from Braque and Picasso. The Puteaux Group was a significant offshoot of the Cubist movement; it included Guillaume Apollinaire, Robert Delaunay, Marcel Duchamp, his brothers Raymond Duchamp-Villon and Jacques Villon, and Fernand Léger, and Francis Picabia. Other important artists associated with cubism include: Albert Gleizes, Jean Metzinger, Marie Laurencin, Max Weber, Diego Rivera, Marie Vorobieff, Louis Marcoussis, Jeanne Rij-Rousseau, Roger de La Fresnaye, Henri Le Fauconnier, Alexander Archipenko, František Kupka, Amédée Ozenfant, Léopold Survage, Patrick Henry Bruce among others. Section d'Or is another name for a related group of many of the same artists associated with cubism and orphism.In 1913 the United States was exposed to cubism and modern European art when Jacques Villon exhibited seven important and large drypoints at the famous Armory Show in New York City. Braque and Picasso themselves went through several distinct phases before 1920, and some of these works had been seen in New York prior to the Armory Show, at Alfred Stieglitz's "291" gallery. Czech artists who realized the epochal significance of cubism of Picasso and Braque attempted to extract its components for their own work in all branches of artistic creativity—especially painting and architecture. This developed into Czech Cubism which was an avant-garde art movement of Czech proponents of cubism active mostly in Prague from 1910 to 191四是

一是headline二是speech三是penpal四是journal五是belong to六是engineer七是kind八是architect 九是outstanding1 title1 [C] the name of a book, poem, painting, piece of music, etc.: His poems were published under the title of ‘Love and Reason’.

the title track from their latest CD (= the song with the same title as the disc)

She has sung the title role in ‘Carmen’ (= the role of Carmen in that opera).2 [C] a particular book or magazine: The company publishes twenty new titles a year.3 [C] a word in front of a person’s name to show their rank or profession, whether or not they are married, etc.: The present duke inherited the title from his father.

Give your name and title (= Mr, Miss, Ms, Dr, etc.).

note at name4 [C] a name that describes a job: The official title of the job is ‘Administrative Assistant’.5 [C] the position of being the winner of a competition, especially a sports competition: the world heavyweight title

a title fight (= in boxing)

She has three world titles.6 [U, C] ~ (to sth / to do sth) (law) the legal right to own sth, especially land or property; the document that shows you have this right: He claims he has title to the land.2speech1 [C] ~ (on / about sth) a formal talk that a person gives to an audience: to give / make / deliver a speech on human rights

He made the announcement in a speech on television.

Several people made speeches at the wedding.2 [U] the ability to speak: I seemed to have lost the power of speech.

a speech defect

freedom of speech (= the right to say openly what you think)3 [U] the way in which a particular person speaks: Her speech was slurred—she was clearly drunk.4 [U] the language used when speaking: This expression is used mainly in speech, not in writing.

speech sounds5 [C] a group of lines that an actor speaks in a play in the theatre: She has the longest speech in the play.—see also figure of speech3(also pen pal NAmE, BrE) noun a person that you make friends with by writing letters, often sb you have never met4maga•zine /mzin; NAmE mzin/ noun 1 (also informal mag /m/) a type of large thin book with a paper cover that you can buy every week or month, containing articles, photographs, etc., often on a particular topic: a weekly / monthly magazine

a magazine article / interview

Her designer clothes were from the pages of a glossy fashion magazine.2 a radio or television programme that is about a particular topic: a regional news magazine on TV

a magazine programme / program3 the part of a gun that holds the bullets before they are fired4 a room or building where weapons, explosives and bullets are stored5own /n; NAmE on/ adj., pron., verb adj., pron.1 used to emphasize that sth belongs to or is connected with sb: It was her own idea.

I saw it with my own eyes (= I didn’t hear about it from somebody else).

Is the car your own?

Your day off is your own (= you can spend it as you wish).

Our children are grown up and have children of their own.

For reasons of his own (= particular reasons that perhaps only he knew about), he refused to join the club.

The accident happened through no fault of her own.

He wants to come into the business on his own terms.

I need a room of my own.

I have my very own room at last.

Own cannot be used after an article: I need my own room.

I need an own room.

It’s good to have your own room.

It’s good to have the own room.2 done or produced by and for yourself: She makes all her own clothes.

He has to cook his own meals.

come into your / its own to have the opportunity to show how good or useful you are or sth is: When the traffic’s this bad, a bicycle really comes into its own.

get your own back (on sb) (informal) to do sth to sb in return for harm they have done to you; to get revenge: I’ll get my own back on him one day, I swear!

hold your own (against sb/sth) (in sth) to remain in a strong position when sb is attacking you, competing with you, etc.: Business isn’t good but we’re managing to hold our own.

She can hold her own against anybody in an argument.

The patient is holding her own although she is still very sick.

(all) on your own1 alone; without anyone else: I’m all on my own today.

She lives on her own.2 without help: He did it on his own.—more at devil, mind n., sake1, sound n. verb (not used in the progressive tenses) 1 [vn] to have sth that belongs to you, especially because you have bought it: Do you own your house or do you rent it?

I don’t own anything of any value.

Most of the apartments are privately owned.

an American owned company

Does anyone own this coat? It was left in a classroom.

Don’t tell me what to do—you don’t own me!2 ~ to sth / to doing sth (old-fashioned) to admit that sth is true: [v] He owned to a feeling of guilt.

[v (that)] She owned (that) she had been present.

behave / act as if you own the place |

think you own the place (disapproving) to behave in a very confident way that annoys other people, for example by telling them what to do

own up (to sth / to doing sth) to admit that you are responsible for sth bad or wrong

confess: I’m still waiting for someone to own up to the breakages.

Why don’t you just own up and hope she forgives you?6archi•tect /ktekt; NAmE rk/ noun 1 a person whose job is designing buildings, etc.2 a person who is responsible for planning or creating an idea, an event or a situation: He was one of the principal architects of the revolution.

Jones was the architect of the team’s first goal.7friend•ly /frendli/ adj., noun adj. (friend•lier, friend•li•est) 1 ~ to / toward(s) sb behaving in a kind and pleasant way because you like sb or want to help them: a warm and friendly person

Everyone was very friendly towards me.

unfriendly2 showing kindness; making you feel relaxed and as though you are among friends: a friendly smile / welcome

a small hotel with a friendly atmosphere

unfriendly3 ~ (with sb) treating sb as a friend: We soon became friendly with the couple next door.

She was on friendly terms with most of the hospital staff.

We were not on the friendliest of terms (= we were not friendly at all).4 (especially of the relationship between countries) not treating sb/sth as an enemy: to maintain friendly relations with all countries

hostile5 (often in compound adjectives) that is helpful and easy to use; that helps sb/sth or does not harm it: This software is much friendlier than the previous version.

environmentally-friendly farming methods

ozone-friendly cleaning materials—see also user-friendly6 in which the people, teams, etc. taking part are not seriously competing against each other: a friendly argument

friendly rivalry

(BrE) It was only a friendly match.

friend•li•ness noun [U]: We were greeted with warmth and friendliness. noun (pl. -ies) (also friendly match) (both BrE) a game of football (soccer) etc. that is not part of an important competition: He played for England in a friendly against Spain.8en•gin•eer /endn(r); NAmE nr/ noun, verb noun1 a person whose job involves designing and building engines, machines, roads, bridges, etc.—see also chemical engineer, civil engineer, electrical engineer, lighting engineer, mechanical engineer, software engineer, sound engineer2 a person who is trained to repair machines and electrical equipment: They’re sending an engineer to fix the phone.3 a person whose job is to control and repair engines, especially on a ship or an aircraft: a flight engineer

the chief engineer on a cruise liner4 (NAmE) = engine driver5 a soldier trained to design and build military structures verb [vn] 1 (often disapproving) to arrange for sth to happen or take place, especially when this is done secretly in order to give yourself an advantage

contrive: She engineered a further meeting with him.2 [usually passive] to design and build sth: The car is beautifully engineered and a pleasure to drive.3 to change the genetic structure of sth

genetically modify: genetically engineered crops9ex•cel•lent /ekslnt/ adj. 1 extremely good: an excellent meal

excellent service

At $300 the bike is excellent value.

She speaks excellent French.

(informal) It was absolutely excellent.2 used to show that you are very pleased about sth or that you approve of sth: You can all come? Excellent!

ex•cel•lent•ly adv.

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